A problem that arises in the final couplet of “What is Tasawwuf ?” is that in equating Tasawwuf and shari’a, the poet brings up and then resolves an apparent tension between Tasawwuf and shari’a. Such a tension, however, exists only to the degree that one defines these two terms as being mutually exclusive. While various extremists persist in excluding one from the other, we do have many inclusive statements – such as that of the poet of “What is Tasawwuf ?” – in which Tasawwuf and shari’a are interwoven, similarly defined, or equated. Qushayri (d. 465/1074), for example, defined “shari’a” as “assiduous observance of servanthood.” Defining Tasawwuf in a comparable fashion, Abu al-Hasan al-Shudhili (d. 656/1258) stated: “Tasawwuf is training the self (nafs) through servanthood and subjecting it to the commands (ahkam) of Lordship.”

Supporting the close relationship between Tasawwuf and shari’a, the Sufi Abu Yazid al-Bistami (d. 260/874) asserted that observing the shari’a was a touchstone for judging a person’s spiritual degree: “Were you to see a man who performs miracles such that he ascends into the air, do not be deceived by him. Instead, observe how well he is following the Divine commands, abstaining from what is prohibited, keeping within the limits set by God, and observing the shari’a.”Similarly, Abu al-Husayn al-Warraq (d. before 320/932), asserted the futility of trying to reach God without conforming one’s actions to shari’a and the sunna: “A servant will only reach Allah through Allah and by being in harmony with his loved one [the Beloved Prophet (Peace and Blessings of Allah Almighty upon him)] through his laws (shari’a). And whoever believes that he can follow a path without emulating (al-iqtida) [the Beloved Prophet (Peace and Blessings of Allah Almighty upon him)] will become lost, on account of imagining that he is being guided.”Undoubtedly, for all but a minority of Sufis throughout history, carefully observing the shari’a has been a crucial and on-going component of their spiritual practice.

One way of understanding the interrelationship of Tasawwuf and shari’a was expressed by the Kubrawi Sufi, Najm al-Din Razi (d. 654/1256). Using the term tariqa (path) to denote Tasawwuf – as Sufis commonly do – he clarified its relationship to shari’a: “The shari’at has an outer (zahiri) and an inner (batini) aspect. Its outer aspect consists of bodily deedsÂ… The inner aspect of the shari’at consists of deeds of the heart (qalbi), of the inner mystery (sirri), and of the spirit (ruhi) and is called the tariqat. “Hence, for Razi, the tariqa (or Tasawwuf) is not separate from shari’a, it is, rather, its inner dimension.

In summary, it should be clear, then, that in spite of extremist views that see Tasawwuf and shari’a as mutually exclusive, the author of “What is Tasawwuf?” – like most Sufis – bridges the false dichotomy between Tasawwuf and shari’a.

These terms denote the fruits of ‘theophany’ (tajalli), the results of unveilings (kushufat), and the appearances of inrushes (waridat) that they [meaning the Sufis] experience. The first of these is ‘tasting,’ then, ‘drinking,’ and then ‘being quenched.’ One who is characterized by dhawq (tasting) tries to be intoxicated (mutasakir). One who is characterized by shurb (drinking) is intoxicated (sakran). And one who is characterized by riyy (being quenched) is sober (sah).

The sense of the term “taste” in the poem “What is Tasawwuf ?” seems to have both the general meaning and the more specifically Sufi sense as noted by Qushayri. The general meaning is conveyed in the expressions the “taste for religion,” where the sense is that the Sufis’ “appreciation” for religion is the basis for their ecstasy. The more specific meaning of which Qushayri speaks is alluded to in the poet’s linking together these two hierarchical states of consciousness (“taste” and ecstasy”). The poet states that “ecstasy” is derived from “taste,” implying that Sufi ecstasy only comes about after a firm foundation in the appreciation of and commitment to following the religion (namely Islam). Hence the poet says, “I have heard that the ecstasy of the wearers of wool (suf) comes from finding the taste for religion.

In Persian the literal meaning of the word sufi would be translated as “suf push“(wearer of wool). Hence the phrase in the poem “wearer of wool” is synonymous with Sufi’s. It is generally agreed that the first Sufis were pious, ascetic Muslims who were called Sufis because they wore clothes of coarse wool (suf) rather than more refined garments.

These early Sufi ascetics were following the example of the Beloved Prophet Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam, who (as reported by Ibn Sa’d [d. 230/845] through reliable transmitters) was known to wear woollen garments. Moreover, the great hadith scholar Bayhaqi (d. 458/1066), in his Shu’ab al-iman, includes numerous reports about the virtues of wearing suf. In one report the Most Beloved Prophet of Allah Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam states;

In spite of the criticism leveled against this and other reports that the Beloved Prophet Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam wore wool, the isnad of Ibn Sa’d's report mentioned above was not criticised and appears to be flawless. Hence in wearing wool the Sufis were not departing from the record of the sunnah of the Beloved of Allah Salla Allahu ta’ala ‘alayhi wa Sallam.

Literally, the word wajd means “finding,” but for the Sufis it also means a moment of ecstasy in which one experiences an unveiling – and hence a “finding” – of some aspect of Allah Almighty’s reality. Ruzbihan (d. 606/1209) defined wajd as, “The heart’s perceiving the sweetness of contact with the light of ” eternality before time” (azaliyat), the purity of witnessing, and the delight of the [Divine] address. Wajd is often portrayed as the intermediary stage of a three-stage process consisting of tawajud, wajd, and wujud. Qushayri defines tawajud as “willfully seeking to have wajd ; one in this state does not actually possess true wajd.” Concerning wajd itself, Qushayri wrote, “Wajd is that which encounters your heart, entering [it and coming] over you, without will or effort on your part.” Abu al-Husayn al-Nuri stated,

Qushayri defined the third stage, wujud, as being that which occurs “after one progresses beyond wajd;” [it is truly realized only] “after the cessation of human qualities (khumud al-bashariya), because human qualities cannot remain present during the manifestation of the sovereignty of the Truth (sultan al-haqiqa).”

A succinct summary of each of these three stages was expressed by Qushayri’s shaykh and father-in-law, Abu ‘Ali al-Daqqaq:

Hence, as one advances from tawajud to wajd and wujud, one experiences a progressive dissolution of one’s egocentricity and a surrendering of one’s identification with one’s self.

Khuld is one of the many terms in Islamic languages for paradise, which can be spoken of as consisting of various degrees. The highest degree of paradise is sometimes referred to as khuld-i barin. Some writers of Sufi literature – such as the author of the poem about which we are remarking – have seen Tasawwuf as a path to the highest degree of paradise, a path that is more certain than that offered by Islam in general, since Tasawwuf is more demanding and rigorous, going beyond the minimum degree of conformity to Allah’s will required in Islam. Other Sufi writers have used terms for paradise as metaphors alluding to aspects of Tasawwuf or to experiences encountered on the Sufi path. In this way, Sufis bring paradise into this life or, conversely, they raise up to paradise an aspect of this life. An example of such a metaphorical usage is expressed by the Persian poet Hafiz, who has written perhaps the best known couplet using the term “the most exalted paradise”(khuld-i barin):

Rawda-yi khuld-i barin khalvat-i darvishanast
Maya-yi muhtashimi khalvat-i darvishanast

The classical Sufi doctrine of certainty involved three degrees: the knowledge of certainty (‘ilm al-yaqin), the eye of certainty (‘ayn al-yaqin), and the reality of certainty (haqq al-yaqin). Hujwiri (d. ca. 465/1072) discussed them in the following manner:

“By ‘ilm al-yaqin the Sufis mean knowledge of (religious) practice (mu’amalat) in this world according to the Divine commandments; by ‘ayn al-yaqin they mean knowledge of the state of dying (naz’) and the time of departure from this world; and by haqq al-yaqin they mean the unveiling (kashf) of the vision (of God) that will be revealed in Paradise, and of its nature. Therefore, ‘ilm al-yaqin is the rank of religious scholars (‘ulama’) on account of their correct observance of the divine commands, and ‘ayn al-yaqin is the station of gnostics (maqam-i ‘arifan) on account of their readiness for death, and haqq al-yaqin is the annihilation-point of lovers (fana’gah-i dustan), on account of their rejection of all ‘existent beings and things’ (mawjudat)”

In these three degrees of certainty, one clearly sees a hierarchy of states of consciousness, one which corresponds to a three-fold hierarchy of human identity: the scholars, the gnostics, and at the highest degree, the lovers.

But [in contrast to the mere philosopher and the heretic] Â…the possessor of true felicity nourish[es] the seed of the spirit in accordance with the law of Shari’at until all his senses attain perfection. He will then perceive, through his outer and inner senses, all the three hundred and sixty thousand realms that constitute the material and spiritual worlds (mulk va malakut)Â…He sees every atom in each of these worlds to be a manifestation of one of the divine attributes containing within it one of Allah Almighty’s signs; he removes the veil from the face of the manifestations, and the beauty of God’s signs is displayed to him. [As the poet Abu al-'Atahiya stated,]

In every thing is a sign (aya) of His
pointing to the fact that He is One (ahad).

This is the threshold of the world of certainty (iqan)Â…Then the pure essence of Allah may be known in its unity, and the attributes (sifat) of divinity may be contemplated with the eye of certainty (‘ayn al-yaqin).”

Razi makes it very clear: in order to follow the path that leads to certainty and the awareness of the very “essence of God,”one must discipline and perfect one’s senses by means of shari’a, and one must be aware that there is nothing in existence that does not derive from an attribute of Allah Almighty.

Contemplation (fikr or tafakkur) is an important aspect of the methodology of Islam in general and Tasawwuf in particular. In both the Qur’an al kareem and the sunnah, people are instructed by Allah to contemplate. In surat al-Nahl, Allah [Almighty is He] states;

Similarly, in surah al ‘Imran, we read,

“Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and in the succession of night and day, there are indeed signs for all who possess [awakened] hearts, those who remember Allah [Exalted is He] when they stand, sit, and lie down and contemplate the creation of the heavens and the earth” [Qur'an 3:190-91].

One hadith that clearly expresses the significance of contemplation in the sunnah was cited by Imam al Ghazali,

“An hour’s worth of contemplation is better than a year’s worth of worship.”

The Sufi technical term jam’ that I have translated by the word “concentration” is more literally translated as “the state of being gathered”or “collected,” sometimes even being rendered as “union.” It is often used in contrast to the term tafriqa (separation). Concerning them Qushayri wrote, “Affirming created existence (khalq) comes about through ‘separation;’ and affirming Allah (Haqq) derives from ‘concentration’ or ‘gatheredness’. The servant must have both ‘concentration’ and ‘separation.’  Whoever has no ‘separation’ has no servanthood; and whoever has no ‘concentration,’ has no gnosis (ma’rifa).’”Thus “concentrating one’s mind,” as we find in the poem, is more than simply the kind of concentration that one uses in one’s day to day activities in the world. “Concentrating one’s mind” for the folk of Tasawwuf implies the transcendental knowledge of Allah Almighty that is called gnosis (ma’rifa).

On six occasions the Qur’an al kareem links together the roots of the words itminan and qalb. In particular, one aya that is frequently cited by Sufis is in surat al-Ra’d,

The emphasis in Tasawwuf on the practice of the remembrance of Allah is directly linked with the Qur’anic assertion that hearts become tranquil and find peace by means of remembering and meditating on Allah Almighty. A certain shaykh quoted in the Qur’anic commentaries of Sulami and Ruzbihan said;

Another shaykh quoted by both Sulami and Baqli stated;

The word mahabba is derived from the word hubb, both of which commonly mean love and affection. In the Qur’an, both words occur, although hubb is more common. The verbal form of these words, however, is used numerous times in the Qur’an. Two ayas involving love that Sufis frequently quote are;

and

A hadith qudsi in which mahabba is mentioned was included in the highly regarded Muwatta of Imam Malik (d. 179/795) on the authority of Abu Idris al-Khawlani (d. 80/699-700). He transmitted the following narrative, which contains this hadith qudsi as transmitted by Mu’adh ibn Jabal (d. 18/639) :

From the Qur’anic examples that we have cited, in addition to this hadith, it should be clear that mahabba (affection and love) is an important Islamic principle. In Sufi literature, along with an emphasis on the terms ‘ishq (passionate love), we also often see the terms hubb and mahabba (affectionate love).